Antigone Divine Law Vs. Human Law Essays (2060 words) - Operas

Antigone: Divine Law Vs. Human Law Antigone: Divine Law vs. Human Law The play entitled Antigone was written by a man named Sophocles, a scholarly author of philosophy and logic. The play Antigone is probably one of the most prominent interpretations of a tragic drama. The two main characters of the play are Antigone and Creon. There is much conflict between Antigone and Creon throughout the play, both of them having their own ideas and opinions regarding divine law versus human law. The theme that I am going to analyze is the conflict of divine law vs. human law. The reason for this is because this theme seems to control the whole play. It is an issue of which law is the right law, and if Creon's and Antigone's acts were justifiable. The play Antigone can be summarized by the following: King Creon lets it be known that Polyneices the traitor is not to be buried, but his sister Antigone defies the order because of the values she holds. She is caught, and sentenced by Creon to be buried alive - even though she is to be married to his son Haemon. After the blind prophet Tiresias proves that the gods are on Antigone's side, Creon changes his mind - but too late. He goes first to bury Polyneices, but Antigone has already hanged herself. When Creon arrives at the tomb, Haemon attacks him and then kills himself. When the news of their death is reported, Creon's wife Eurydice takes her own life. Creon ends up being all alone due to the fact that his family members took their own lives. Creon blames himself for all of these tragedies occurring, mainly because it was his wrong doings that caused them. The concept of divine law can be described as the law of God. Divine law involves morals and beliefs that are presented by God. Charles Segal describes the idea of divine law as being the unwritten laws of the Gods (Sophocles 64). This type of law is most likely in effect when the idea of morals are apparent, such as when a moral decision must be made. This type of decision would probably be considered right or wrong. Divine law is not only in decisions, but also in the everyday actions of people. Things that are morally right are in accordance with the law of God, while things that are morally wrong tend to be actions that go against the law of God. Divine law may not apply to those who do not believe in God. Even those who do believe in God may not follow this type of law because they do not think that this law will have any type of impact upon their lives. Most people are very skeptical about whether or not the laws of god are truly upheld. Human law is the type of law that is set up to govern the land and the community. As it is stated on the internet site, Encyclopedia.com, human law can be characterized as rules of conduct of organized society, enforced by threat of punishment (Encyclopedia.com law). Human law is usually set up by the head of a community or by the governors of the land. This type of law is normally enforced by people known as officers or guards. They make sure that the law of the land is followed accordingly. There are people in communities that do not follow the laws that are put into effect by humans. This is apparent in the play Antigone, when Antigone herself disobeys a law that was set up by King Creon, a law that went against the beliefs she held towards the law of the Gods. The issues between Antigone and Creon is what the whole play is basically all about. Charles Paul Segal wrote in his essay Sophocles' Praise of Man and the Conflicts of the Antigone that: The characters, like the play itself, have many levels which fuse organically, sometimes indistinguishably, into a complex unity; and here the confrontations of the two protagonists create an ever-ramifying interplay between interlocking and expanding issues (62). The issues that Antigone and Creon have between them are what ties this whole play together, and the theme is also

Essay on Criminal Justice and Violent Female Offenders part 2Essay Writing Service

Essay on Criminal Justice and Violent Female Offenders part 2Essay Writing Service Essay on Criminal Justice and Violent Female Offenders part 2 Essay on Criminal Justice and Violent Female Offenders part 2Essay on   Criminal Justice and Violent Female Offenders part  1Stacey  and Spohn found out consistently more lenient treatment of female offenders, even after they checked and controlled for the presumptive sentence, offenders marital status, and if the offender has dependent children. They suggest that fact of gender disparity in sentencing is not a product of insufficient controls for related variables or the use of outdated data sets (Stacey, Spohn, 2006).The effect of the offenders gender is clearly revealed by the effect of the presumptive sentence. However, the offenders gender does influence every sentence outcomes examined regardless of the fact it is a legally forbidden basis for judicial and prosecutorial decisions.Researchers have found out that female offenders are more likely than male offenders to get a downward departure for providing substantial assistance. Besides, female offenders who received that type of departure usually received a larger sentence discount than male offenders in similar situations. All offenders included in the study conducted by Ann Martin Stacey and Cassia Spohn, were convicted of drug crimes, which means that substantial assistance departures would have been given primarily to offenders who was able to provide information leading to the arrest and prosecution of other members in their drug distribution network. It seems doubtful that women would have that type of information or that female offenders would be more likely than male ones to be willing to exchange the information they had for a lighter sentence. Prosecutors may use the action for substantial help to mitigate the sentences of sympathetic offenders, no matter whether they have information they are willing to trade; if female drug offenders get more sympathy than male ones, they are more likely to get substantial assistance departures. On the other hand, there is a possibility that female drug offenders have been arrested and prosecuted in court with the expectation that they would give information about the drug-dealing activities of their boyfriends or husbands. This issue should also be studied, as the topic of equality in criminal justice system is of great importance.Another fact is worth mentioning. While all rehabilitation programs are ready to help all people with criminal past despite their gender, there is a number of programs and services especially for women. For example, Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP): Female Offenders provides female offenders with appropriate help to meet the physical, psychological and social needs of this group. National Directory of Programs for Women with Criminal Justice Involvement provides information about programs available in each state that provide assistance and guidance for women involved in the justice system.Female prisoners constantly attract the attention of the media. However, many experts in the United States say that r esearch in this area is carried out on the insufficient level. Amount of research devoted to the problem of women in prison is just enough to set the existing specific difference in the performance and the serving of sentences in comparison with men. In general, womens community in the United States is characterized by a smaller prison violence, more harmony, less destructive nature of the subculture as compared to men of the prison community (Nagel, Johnson, 2004).Ward and J. Kassebaum investigated violations in prison related to sexual perversions. As a result, they concluded that in the majority of cases in the womens community forced sexual contact is absent.Studies of R. Gialombardo note that in contrast to the male prison community, in womens prisons mutual sexual relationship characterized by harmony, role-playing family life (mom, dad, daughter, brother, sister) dominate.Heffern studied socio-psychological characteristics of women prisoners in the prison in Columbia. Accordi ng to the scientist, the womens prison community is very diverse. She identified three main categories of women prisoners.For the first category of inmates, prison is a center of life in which they are struggling with the administration and other inmates for the right to control the situation and get access to restricted services (alcohol, drugs, extra food, and so on.)The second category consists of female prisoners who have committed unintentional crime, often murder of passion. Their behavior in prison is characterized by denial of their belonging to the underworld. Throughout incarcerated they are trying to recreate in prison conditions usual for freedom, to actively maintain contact with the outside world.The third category of women prisoners are professional criminals, usually serving criminal sentences for acquisitive or selfish and violent crimes. Their behavior in prison is characterized by the adoption of external rules and regulations established by the administration. Ho wever, this behavior is aimed at an early parole for the continuation of the criminal way of life.Tightening of criminal law in the 1980s had a great impact on the growth of female population in prisons of the United States (since 1984 the number of female convicted increased by 100%, men by 51%). Main number of women has been convicted of theft and crime related to drugs. Sufficient number of women were convicted of the murder of husbands or partners, who were violent to them. Thus, the National Council on Offenses of the United States stated that womens prisons in the mid-1990s were significantly overcrowded. This fact has contributed to the development of criminal procedural law of a wider range of measures and penalties, non-custodial from society (Samaha, 2008).It is believed that the majority of female offences does not significantly affect the physical or psycho-social sphere of the person or the society. D. Wagner watched liberated women for 2 years and found that women were 44% less likely than men to commit crime again. According to various sources the number of women who have committed repeated crimes amounts 17% of the total number of women released from prison. While the number of male offenders is approaching 40%. It has also been noted that women commit far fewer crimes if they are in the focus of attention of various community-based services (social, psychological, medical, and others.). The majority of female prisoners have serious economic, medical, psychological and social problems. Especially these problems are exacerbated and come to the attention only in prison.Special social programs for women are more effective than imprisonment. In Pennsylvania, for example, the implementation of such programs on female offenders has significantly reduced repeat offenses. Sample of 1,000 people who participated in the program showed a relapse only in 3.2% of cases. Measures such as house arrest, intensive support are also an effective alternative to im prisonment in case of direct exposure. Thus, the modern American penal science focuses not on punitive, but humanistic traditions in the correction of female convicts.EthicsCriminality of women and its prevention is most acute at the moment, because according to statistics there is a steady increase in female crime in our country. Many scientists have set a goal to explain the phenomenon of female criminality. Scientific community is still debating regarding the psychological or innate biological nature of female criminality, its exogenous or endogenous.Endogenous theory of crime explains the phenomenon of womens criminalization based on psychogenetic factors. It is known that one of the founders of criminology Cesare Lombroso suggested mental predisposition of women to commit crimes. Thus, even the occasional criminals, in his opinion, discover because of the conditions of life, the fraction of moral perversion, which is peculiar to every woman who is in her ordinary conditions in a latent state (Samaha, 2008).Supporters of biological criminology perceive causes of female crime in the physiological and biological characteristics of human. In particular, some scholars of the school explain female aggressiveness through hromosomnogonabora anomalies. Thus, in the normal condition sex chromosomes of women should be of the form XX and of a man XY. Scientists believe that the cause of female aggression lies in the presence of the chromosome of XXY set in some women, ie that they have the extra male chromosome. Authors of endocrine biological theories find the origins of aggression in the anomalies functioning of the endocrine glands and the development of an increased amount of substances that cause nervousness and aggression, such as testosterone.However, a direct correlation between the number of criminal convictions and biological inclinations of women haven’t been found. It is likely that the biological inclinations effect female criminality in an indire ct way: particular qualities of the physiology of women are responsible for their role in society and have thus an impact on the behavior of women, including their criminal behavior and violence.Factors that are considered to be causes of female crime, can be divided into four groups:1) adverse processes in the field of culture, changing the concept of womens culture, its replacement by a variety of substitutes;2) socio-political situation in the country;3) professional activities of women;4) family life and domestic sphere;The first group of factors include:underestimation of the importance of traditional womens society functions (the birth and upbringing of children, housekeeping)priority of male activities (civil service, industry, commerce);depravity of the womens movement that encourages women to perform male functions.These factors lead to a gradual loss of womens culture phenomena such as femininity, meek​​, tenderness, mercy.The second group could includes:incr eased criminality culture imposed on the media;economic crisis, low level of life, unemployment (and the proportion of women among overall unemployed is around 70%);criminal rationalism of being, i.e. limiting the possibility of certain groups of population to provide a normal life by legal means;insecurity, which provokes drug addiction and alcoholism.We should also mention the international conflicts, which represent one of the most criminogenic phenomena. As a result of armed conflicts, women lose their husbands, relatives, place of living. Single women and girls are often subjected to abuse, resulting usually with severe psychological trauma, which significantly reduces the ability to control committed actions.Generating female criminality factors associated with work (the third group) include:deficiencies of legal regulation of womens work (employment problems, inadequate working conditions, lower than men wages);lack of social support for working women (inadequate protection o f labor, lack of child care and employee social benefits).Factors related to the family and household sphere (fourth group) are:family conflicts (in the parent or own family);negative impact of the husband or cohabiting partner (incitement to crime);lack of permanent residence;aggressive advertising of beautiful and fashionable clothes, which combined with the low standard of living creates motivation to commit acquisitive crime.Speaking of female criminal motivation, it should be noted that under normal conditions, women do not tend to commit crimes. Usually dramatic circumstances of their own life push them to the criminal acts and violence. Undoubtedly, approach of division of crime based on gender makes sense, as both quantitative and qualitative content of female criminality has its own peculiarities and differences than male crime. With regard to the quantitative features and differences, for centuries female criminality has always been much inferior than men’s one. The modern pace and style of life force women to take on traditionally male function, which leads to the perception of the elements of male culture, enabling them to assert themselves, but leaves deep psychological frustration and guilt. Hence the feeling of hostility of the world, uncertainty, and as a result, the likely protective aggression, bitterness, social maladjustment.Modern society is constantly developing, social and political attitudes are changing, previously recognized in our society values and moral are replaced by new ones, spiritual culture falls, traditions and customs are broken, the role of woman as a house person changes. The ratio of the level of crime committed by women, to the level of crimes committed by men, equals 1:6. This is despite the fact that the number of women in the country is higher than the number of men (Greenfeld, Snell, 1999).With regard to the qualitative features and differences, we should note that the statistics show that the ratio of selfis h and violent crimes, and other crimes committed by women is different from the situation of men. There are crimes with reflected pattern, formed under the influence of a particular characteristic specifically for women nature or situation in a certain period. The character of changes of female crime does not always coincide with altered male crime.All these factors have a definite impact on female crime and the forms of its manifestation.   It is known that women are more exposed, both physically and mentally weaker than men. But at the same time, women are faster and easier to adapt to the rapidly changing realities of life. Criminality of women is different from mens crime in nature of the crime and its consequences, and in the methods and tools of the crime and the choice of the victim and the confluence of family circumstances. Crimes of women are different from crimes committed by men, they are more emotional, rash. The most common among women are crimes of theft of personal , state and public property, this category of crimes is 15% of the total crime committed by women.Infanticide is a typical crime for women. Recently there has been an upward trend in this category of crimes, especially clearly this trend is manifested in the countryside. Noteworthy is also the prevalence of violent crime among female prisoners, according to statistics, 2% of women are persons convicted of murder and attempted murder, 3% convicted of grievous bodily harm, more than 4% for robbery and aggravated assault in order to capture state, public and personal property.Women most often commit robberies in urban areas, this is due to the fact that cities have more shops, foodservice.   Besides, the larger number of population in urban areas played an important role, since the great mass of the population makes it difficult to reveal this category of crime. Among women, who commit robbery, there are a lot of females, who commit this type of crime constantly, vagrants and begga rs who have no permanent residence. This category of offenders is the most difficult one in terms of conducting variety of activities for the prevention of crimes and criminals correction.Essay on   Criminal Justice and Violent Female Offenders part  3

Organizational Behavior Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 12

Organizational Behavior - Essay Example One of the coping mechanisms that I use to deal with stress is being honest with others and expressing to them that I have troubles speaking English. People at school are always nice and they help me along when talking to them. When a person knows that the other has troubles with English they speak slower and use simpler language. They also listen more carefully when I talk. In the classroom when I am taking notes sometimes I have trouble understanding the English the teacher speaks. The coping mechanism I use to deal with this situation is recording all my classes in a digital recorder. I then look back at the tape recorder and play back the part I did not understand. Whenever I need extra help a friend of mine listens to the recording and helps me out with an explanation. Sometimes at school I feel stress for other reasons such as a tough project with short deadlines or a difficult test coming up. Some of the things that help me deal with stress are listening to music, playing a cl assic Seinfeld episode on Hulu.com or going out with friends to watch a good movie at the theater. In my life I feel both powerful and powerless at times. Thankfully the powerful situations outweigh the powerless. As a college student I am in a privileged situation in society because I have the opportunity to earn an education which will help me a lot in the tough and competitive labor environment of today. I live a free life without any concerns or external worries associated with being the head of a family or work related pressures. I have the opportunity to choose a college curriculum and degree that I like. I spend my weeks going to stimulating classes that I like, while being surrounded by great people all around the university. I have met a lot of tremendous persons in school that have helped me mature as a person by interacting with me in college. I enjoy a lot my social life in college as well as my

English Law Position of the Hijab on Muslim Customary Laws Essay

English Law Position of the Hijab on Muslim Customary Laws - Essay Example Hijab comes from the Arabic word Hajaba, which means to hide or conceal from view. Generally, it refers to modest dressing for Islamic women. It is extended to mean privacy and modesty. Hijab is not just a piece of cloth on the head, but rather it is a way of life. Hijab requires much more than just covering the head. Hijab is the way you carry yourself, the way you talk, the way you walk. Hijab as a matter of fact is a whole way of life and hence an attitude in itself. For those who are non-Muslims, Hijab is mostly associated with a modest way of clothing that is worn by Muslim women. It is also called the headscarf and it is one of the most noticeable things of Muslim women. Hijab is a duty that is expected from all Muslims. Some Muslims see the concept of Hijab as being consistent and balanced with ideas of gender equality; others view the religious requirement on female covering as patriarchal, chauvinistic, and oppressive and an enforcement of women against their rights (Bahi, 2 008). The wearing of Hijab impacts on so many human rights issues both philosophical and practical and has much currency given recent events. The issue of Islamic dress is linked with immigration issues. The reasons given for prohibition vary but in most cases legal bans on face covering clothing are undertaken as an anti terrorism measure and is justified on security grounds. However there is public controversy which indicates the possibility of polarization between western European societies and the Muslims. In the year two thousand and six, the then British Prime Minister Mr. Tony Blair described it as a mark of separation (Werner, 2011). Terrorism is the criminal enactment or acts expected or ascertained to incite a state of fear in the overall population. It’s an aggregation of persons or specific persons for political purposes and such gestures are in any circumstances outlandish whatever the contemplations of a political, philosophical, ideological, ethnic, racial, religious or other nature that may be conjured to support them. In virtually every corner of the world we can say that the human cost of terrorism has been felt. Terrorism has a very direct and real impact on human rights. Its consequences are very devastating in regards to liberty, physical integrity of victims and enjoyment of the right to life. Terrorism has the ability to undermine civil society, threaten social and economic development, jeopardize peace and security and destabilize governments. An individual’s security is a basic human right and thus the protection of the individuals is considered a fundamental obligation of the government (Macmillan, 2010). States therefore are obligated to uphold human rights of their citizens and others by taking positive measures to keep them safe from terrorists and their threats and bring such perpetrators to justice. Lately however the measures to counter terrorist acts have by states have been challenging to the rule of law and human right s .The bedrock of fighting terrorism should be the respect for the rule of law and human rights. The development of national counter terrorism strategies whose aim is to prevent the acts of terror, prosecute the perpetrators and offer protection of human rights and the rule of law is a major requirement. This implies measures to address the drivers to motivation of terrorism. Terrorism threatens the security and dignity of human beings everywhere, takes innocent lives, endangers lives, and creates an environment that destroys the freedom since the people are in fear. Through acts of terror, fundamental freedom is jeopardized and there is destruction of human rights. It undermines the pluralistic civil society, affects the rule of law and its establishment and it has the ability to destabilize governments that are legitimately constituted. Research shows that terrorism has links with organized crime that is transnational, drug

The employment relationship Essay Example for Free

The employment relationship Essay This essay explores and discusses the employment relationship while considering the value of a systems approach to industrial relations and the fact that individuals view issues from a particular frame of reference. The employment relationship is developed on an inter-related basis involving economic, social and legal dimensions of wider society (Fells, 1989). Organisations are subject to the economic conditions in which they operate. Employers rely on the availability of suitable labour to perform the work of the organisation and although viewed as a commodity by the employer, significant investment in the development of the employee can be lost or unused should the employee decide to leave or remain unmotivated. The unavailability of suitable labour can lead to segmentation of the labour market and a division of labour at the workplace. The division of labour is the breaking down of work into its smallest components in order to achieve effective specialisation, minimal worker discretion and the most efficient output (Sutcliffe and Callus, 1994). This division of labour can have far reaching implications for the management and the organisation, including the control and motivation of the workforce. The legal dimension is concerned with the law of contract between an employer and employee which enables the parties to enter into and enforce agreements (Fells, 1989). By its very nature the employment contract implies a subordination relationship where the employer commands and the employee obeys. The introduction of the Workplace Relations Act 1996 also implies legal boundaries in which the employment relationship must operate (for example the rules relating to unfair dismissal and enterprise bargaining). The social dimension, unlike the economic and legal dimension, is one that chiefly impacts on employees. There are two aspects to this dimension according to Fells (1989), the first being the impact of society on the workplace and secondly employees experiencing management pressures at the workplace as well as pressures from other individual employees who work within a team environment. It is clear that most of us want more out of a working relationship than just a monetary return for our labour. An employer must also provide a job that can stimulate and challenge the worker. Many jobs however are mundane and boring which is a consequence of the increasing division of labour in our industrial society. Industrial relations in a broad sense, is about the behaviour and interaction of people at work. It is concerned with how individuals, groups, organisations and institutions make decisions that shape the employment relationship between management and labour (Deery and Plowman, 1991). It is also closely entwined with political, economic and social forces (Salamon, 1992). As a consequence, people differ in their approaches and views on industrial relations which as a result can lead to industrial conflict. Fox in 1966 attempted to explain the reasons for the differing views of industrial conflict by management and the public, by proposing a frames of reference concept in his paper to the UK Royal Commission on Trade Unions and Employer Associations (Berrell, 1999). Fox believed that some people view industrial relations as a class conflict, others in terms of mutual co-operation and others still in terms of competing interests of various groups. Three approaches were identified: unitary, pluralist and marxist. The unitarian approach believes that industrial relations is based on mutual co-operation, individual treatment, team work and the sharing of common objectives (Stone, 1996). Conflict in the workplace is seen as an anomaly which has occurred because of either union activity, poor management decisions or practice or employees who dont fit the organisations culture. Conflict resulting in strikes for example, is not only considered as unnecessary but destructive. As result, unions are regarded as competitors for employees loyalty and commitment. In essence the unitarian approach is seen as a management ideology which legitimises their authority and control. It blames conflict on employees and threatens unions existence. It is manipulative and exploitative (Horwitz, 1990). In contrast, the pluralist approach accepts the inevitability of conflict (Deery and Plowman, 1991). It sees organisations as coalitions of competing interests where managements role is to mediate amongst the different interests groups. It sees unions as a legitimate representative of employee interests. Management authority under this approach is not automatically accepted. Employees join unions to promote their interests and influence management decision making. As unions are considered to be important in their role of balancing the power between employers and employees, they are considered not only desirable, but necessary. Societies interests at large are protected by state intervention through legislation and industrial tribunals which provide orderly processes for the regulation and resolution of conflict. The marxist approach like pluralists regard conflict between management and employees as inevitable. However, where pluralists see conflict as inherent within all organisations, marxists see it as a product of capitalist society. Adversarial relations in the workplace are seen as simply one aspect of class conflict. Unions under this approach, are seen as instruments for challenging the capitalist system of class domination. By assimilating a persons behaviour to one of the three frames of references, it determines how we would react and shapes the method for altering such behaviour. As a tool for understanding a parties behaviour when conflict occurs we need to undertake a social action perspective, that is to suspend our own judgment when analysing the cause of conflict and accept the persons frame of reference. Individually, our frames of references are molded and influenced by a multiplicity of variables including, values and behaviour, education, political views, work experiences and religious beliefs to name a few. Our position in the class structure and status hierarchy almost certainly has a significant influence as well (Keenoy and Kelly, 1995). It is important to understand these concepts as employers and employees bring to the employment relationship different strategies to gain as much as they can from the relationship. This in turn makes the relationship inherently competitive. Fells (1989) observes that this points to the duality of the employment relationship. Both the employer and employee put their resources, motives, expectations and own interests into the relationshipthese being influenced by the social and economic structure of society (Fells 1989, P 476). In essence therefore, conflict can arise because of the parties differing social and economic interests and strategies. Keenoy and Kelly (1996) take this further by describing the three great struggles which results from the distribution of authority (inherent in an organisational hierarchy) and the division of labour which are sources of potential conflict and competition within the employment relationship. These are identified as the struggle over interests, control and motivation. Abraham Maslow in his hierarchy of needs theory argued that individuals sought to satisfy basic needs required to live; that is food, warmth and shelter (Bartol et al 1995). An employee therefore, seeks is in his/her strategy to satisfy their basic needs for survival. Once satisfied, the employee seeks to improve their social standing by earning more money and purchasing material symbols to demonstrate their success. In contrast however, is the organisations strategy to run an efficient and cost effective business. The nature of the employment relationship is such that the employees interest in maximising income is in direct conflict with the employers interest in minimising costs (Keenoy and Kelly 1996). However, both parties in the relationship are equally dependent upon each other for without labour there is no profit and without capital this is no jobs. This is simply termed structured antagonism as the relationship produces both mutual and conflicting interests. Fells (1989) argues that a frontier of control exists between an employer and employee which is born out of the legal, social and economic pressures effecting the distribution of power within the employment relationship. It represents the point of confrontation and interaction between the structure of management control and the challenge from organised labour (Storey, 1980 p 12). The struggle for control arises out of the vagueness of the employment contract, as it rarely specifies the parameters and preciseness of the work to be performed by the employee in exchange for payment (for example, level of effort and range of duties). Both parties tend therefore to have their own expectations as to what has been initially agreed upon and as such, this vagueness can often lead to conflict. In response, the employers strategy is to set up an array of control mechanisms, one being the hierarchy of authority where people are employed to supervise the work of others. This act in itself can lead to tensions within the employment relationship as industrial conflict often occurs when employees challenge the limits of managerial authority. Variations in the degree of control is also apparent within many jobs. For example production line workers experience tight control mechanisms whereas politicians, doctors and lawyers experience little or no control over their particular functions. This last group especially enjoy an elevated position in the hierarchy of authority and a high level of control and autonomy over their work (Kennoy and Kelly, 1996). As a result, conflict may occur over the inability of an organisation to provide a suitable career path which allows an employee access to a higher level of authority within the hierarchy. Securing employee commitment can be a difficult task for an employer as not all employees are motivated to work by monetary rewards alone. Although theorists have argued that motivation is the key to employee behaviour and productivity, work undertaken by the likes of Frederick Herzberg and his two-factor theory have largely been ignored due to the advantages of increasing the division of labour over the benefits of increasing employee satisfaction (Keenoy and Kelly, 1996). Management are faced therefore with a dilemma over ensuring employees remain sufficiently motivated to ensure job effectiveness whilst maintaining the cost effectiveness and efficiency of the organisation. Increasing market competition and a greater emphasis on quality and service provided to customers, may force employers to redefine their strategies towards motivation of their employees. Up to this point the employment relationship has been discussed in terms of its dual nature. However, it is clear that a more holistic approach is required. A systems approach provides a useful look at the employment relationship because it expands on the dual focus to include a third group of actors and the environment within which the relationship operates. John Dunlop proposed an industrial relations system comprised of actors operating within an environment influenced by technology, economics and power distribution. The system is bound together by both ideology and rules to govern behaviour. Three main groups of actors have been defined as managers, workers and their representatives and other bodies concerned with the relationship between workers and employers. The major output of the system is a set of rules and regulations that apply both in the individual workplace and in the wider work community. (Deery and Plowman, 1991). Dunlops industrial relations system has been criticised from a number of quarters (Margerison, 1969; Bain and Clegg, 1974; Hyman) for paying insufficient attention to conflict focusing more on conflict resolution than the root of the conflict, and for suggesting that the industrial relations system is naturally stable. Despite these negative views the system perspective of industrial relations remains valid if only as an analytical tool (Deery and Plowman, 1991). The employment relationship is a unique but fundamental feature of modern society. It commences when an employer engages an employee to perform work in exchange for money. Although this concept of the relationship appears simplistic in nature, it is subject to many stresses and strains brought about by political, social and economic interference. Bibliography Bain, G.S Clegg, H.A, 1974, A Strategy for Industrial Relations Research in Great Britain, British Journal of Industrial Relations, Vol 12, no. 1, p92. Bartol, K.M., Martin, D.C., Tein, M Matthews, G. 1995, Management a Pacific Rim Focus, McGraw-Hill, Sydney. Berrell, M. 1999, Subject Book: Industrial Relations, Monash Distrance Education Centre, Monash University, Churchill, Vic. Deery, S.J. Plowman, D.H. 1991, Australian Industrial Relations, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, Sydney Fells, R.E., 1989, The Employment Relationship Control and Strategic Choice in the Study of Industrial Relations in Labour and Industry, Vol 2(3), October pp470-492 Fox, A. 1980, Industrial Relations: A Social Critique of Pluralist Ideology in Barrett, B., Rhodes, E and Beishon, J. (eds), Industrial Relations in the Wider Society; Aspects of Interaction, Collier MacMillan, London. Horwitz, F.M., 1990, HRM: an ideological perspective, Personnel Review, Vol 19, No.2 pp 10-15. Hyman, R., 1975, Industrial Relations: A Marxist Introduction. MacMillan, London. Keenoy, T. Kelley, D. 1998, The Employment Relationship in Australia, 2nd Ed. Harcourt Brace and Co, Sydney. Margerison, C.J., 1969, What do we mean by Industrial Relations? A Behavioural Science Approach. British Journal of Industrial Relations, vol 7, no.2, , p273 Salamon, M. 1992, Industrial relations Theory and Practice, 2nd Ed, Prentice-Hall, London. Stone, R. 1995. Human Resource Management, 2nd Ed, John Wiley and sons, Brisbane. Storey, J. 1980, The Challenge to Management Control, Kogan Page, London. Suttcliffe, P. Callus, R. 1994, Glossary of Industrial Relations Terms, ACIRRT and ACSM, Sydney, Brisbane. Industrial Relations Assn 1 pg 11

The World Needs International Accounting Standards Essay -- Accounting

Financial reporting has a responsibility to communicate the economic condition and functioning of an enterprise. This has to be accurate, reliable and comply by the accounting standards. Effective financial reporting is essential in maintaining confidence in an economy and encouraging investors to invest. Towards the end of 2008, the financial sector across the world was becoming increasingly unstable. Lehman Brothers had been declared bankrupt, Various allegations towards accounting standards have been made in relation to the financial crisis. A lot of banks worldwide valued most of their financial assets at historic cost, the cost at which the assets were initially bought at. These figures were not adjusted to the current market values, and therefore were over estimated on the financial accounts. The ‘incurred loss model,’ was also heavily criticised. This model required only those losses to be recorded which would have a damaging result on future cash flows. The damaging result would have to be reliably estimated. This model did not permit the effects of future losses to be acknowledged, which was one of the reasons why losses were being severely understated. Had these banks valued their financial assets at fair-value cost, then the accounts of the companies would have been giving a more realistic Picture of profits & losses, and maybe the crisis would have been Recognised earlier in time. Off-balance sheet standards have also been blamed for covering company losses. Off-balance sheet asset/liabilities are those which are exempt from appearing on the balance sheet. It has been put forward by the Financial Crisis Advisory Group that the off-balance sheet standards may have hidden losses, therefore... ... risk factors. In response to the financial crisis, the Boards have been advised to emphasise to business entities how crucial it is that the quality of the data recorded for financial reporting should be to a high standard. A global convergence of accounting standards is more imperative than ever, as financial markets are now global markets. A uniform set of accounting standards around the world would enhance transparency, encourage efficient allocation of resources and would allow risks to be recognised. At the moment, over 100 countries have adopted to the IFRS (International Financial Reporting Standards). The Boards have advised that economies that have not adopted the IFRS, should set a practical timetable for adopting these standards. It is not only vital to converge, but also to maintain common solutions and interpretations between economies.

Home Schooling vs Public Education

Home Schooling vs Public Education Ann Brickler COM/155 University Compostion and Communication I March 10, 2013 Stephanie Cook Home Schooling vs Public Education The debate continues and often will turn into heated arguments between the two opposing sides. The side of the fence that you choose is ultimately your decision on what type of education your child receives. Homeschooling may have many benefits, a public school education may provide a better learning environment for a student to learn and succeed.There are so many forms of education that a person may receive today with two of the forms as home schooling and public education. There are some benefits to the individual of home schooling, such as being able to learn on your own time and having one-on-one instruction. Child safety is a pro for the parent as they are not having to worry about bullying in school and not having their child exposed to drugs or alcohol by their peers. There are also pros and cons of public education with the pros being the child is receiving an education from a professionally trained teacher.They are better prepared in everyday teachings that the child will receive. The curriculum is outlined for the year on what the child will be taught and what is expected to be taught to the child by way of a school board developing the curriculum. Children are also learning on how to socialize with other children and realizing on how diverse a world we have. The cons of home schooling outweigh what some people believe as a benefit. One being that the parent is not a professional teacher such as English or music class. The parent does not have the technique in giving their child a quality and prolific education.Another con is the student is not being exposed to a diverse environment. The child is not able to grow with their peers and associate themselves with reality and what is out there on the streets that children have to deal with when they are in a public school setting. Child safety ca n be a con in public education with what has recently been happening with the shootings in schools and bullying by other children. You should not shelter a child because of the cons as this is something that can be dealt with while growing up. Children learn how to deal with issues such as these and grow more because of them.Another con is the standardized testing that children are expected each year to take at the beginning of each school year. This test gives the school board a better concept on where each child is in their learning grade. It also is one factor on whether a child will move ahead in their grade level in the fifth and eighth grade. Children are tested and quizzed weekly in their classes and that determination in itself will give each teacher a concept on what the child is retaining and whether they should move along in each grade level. Socialization for home schooled children as an individual or a group can be a challenge for them.Public schooled children have a be tter advantage to them when they are put in a group together to socialize amongst themselves relating to a topic they may be learning about in their class or to do a project together. They are able to gather ideas and listen to other ideas which enable more learning for them. When you are home schooled the only type of socialization in a group you are going to have is with either your sibling or with your parent. That can be a good thing only if that child is a type of introvert and has a difficult time relating to others in a traditional school setting.There are homeschool groups that you can join with your child to meet other parents and children, but there may not be many of these groups out there for you to select from as there are children whom are more likely to receive a public education. Another advantage the child in a public school has is being able to play in sports that are offered. The home schooled child does not have that offered to them. A child who is home schooled can request to join a sports team in their school district but that does not always work for them. The district can say no to them joining a school sport.A public school child can join a school sport at any time it is offered; however, they are expected to maintain a grade point average of a C. If they do not, they are suspended from the team if they are involved or denied completely from trying out for the team. Public school provides a more diverse and social experience in contrast to homeschooling. Parents whom are homeschooling their children should be qualified to teach as a public schoolteacher. A public school education can be much more fulfilling and gives children the tools they need to succeed.Socialization and interaction with other children is a benefit to any child to help them learn and grow with others in their age group. Home schooled children may not be susceptible to drugs and alcohol or school bullying but sometimes the risks outweigh these factors. There is no te sting done by the district of the home schooled child and to know exactly where they are in their grade level. Standardized testing does aide the district for public school children but is essentially given at the beginning of a school year where it can be a misleading statistic on what the child in a public school does know by the end of the school year.Whether you choose to send your child to a public school or teach them on your own, be sure that you have the proper tools to do this. Your child’s future depends on you and the education they receive. Overall, the knowledge the child gains and the scores they receive between the two, home schooling and public education has each of its own benefits and each of its own drawbacks. As long as the student’s needs are being met, regardless the choice you make for your children, whether it be home schooling or public education, either type of teaching will be the best choice because you made the choice.